Chap II of Advanced International Relations

 CHAP II. THE RISE AND FALL OF THE COLD WAR IN INTERNATIONAL AFFAIRS

II.0 Introduction

The Cold War may best be described as a territorial conflict with severe ideological background with on one side, the United States with its allies and on the other side, the Soviet Union (URSS). The Soviet Union promoted Communism, while the United States promoted anti-Communism and tried to combat the expansion efforts of the Soviet Union. 

These ideologies played a major role in the Cold War, because when the Soviet Union established relations with a country, those relations served as a channel through which Communism could flow into the country and gradually take over and become the ideological structure of the nation. This would then enable the Soviet Union to put the country under its control. In essence, the Soviet Union used Communism as a tool to form the greatest empire of modern times.

II.0.1 The Orgin of the Term Cold War

The Term was used before in the fourteenth century by a Scholar Don Juan Manuel referred to the conflict that were between Christianity and Islam which created a world known conflict and he called it “cold war” and he defined the distinguishing characteristics between a cold war and a hot war. War that is very fierce and very hot ends either with death and destroyed, whereas a cold cold war neither brings peace nor confers honor on those who wage it, he warned of a “peace that is no peace”.

II.1 Ideological causes of the Cold War

The ideology behind the Cold War was hopelessly convoluted. There was capitalism, which governed the United States economy and democracy, which governed the U.S. government. And then there was communism, which was adopted by the Soviet Union. It is important to understand the ideological issues of the Cold War because the various ideologies of the various nations always had a hand in whatever they did; in their foreign policy, culture, economy, and government. 

Capitalism was the predominant economic system in the Western world, while the Communist command economy was the predominant economic system in the East. Supporting these two systems were two forms of government, democracy and totalitarianism. It was these ideological concepts that formed the backbone of Cold War ideology.

II.1.1 Communist Roots (origin)

Capitalism received its name from an interesting source, Karl Marx. Although he considered capitalism to be a brilliant economic system, he felt that it could not work in the real world because it benefited the upper classes a lot more than it did the working classes. As a result, he developed an alternative to capitalism: Communism. Ideological roots behind Soviet Communism consisted of a maze of principles stemming from a great variety of sources.

The concept that everything could belong to everyone first was realized in early Chinese communes. Their practice was further developed by the Greeks in the 300 B.Cs. A good example was the Spartans, who practiced communal owning of property. The Greek philosopher, Plato, even wrote about communal ownership in his book, Republic. 

Later on, in 1516, Sir Thomas More, an English statesman and philosopher, wrote in his book, Utopia, that all citizens should share equally the wealth produced by industry. During the French Revolution, (1789-1799) some extremists, favored a revolutionary dictatorship that would abolish private property.

However, perhaps the most influential individual involved in the theory of Communism was Karl Marx. Along, with Friedrich Engels, a German economist, he wrote the Communist Manifesto, (1848) in which he expressed the basic ideas of Marxism, which was to become one of the fundamental pillars of Communism. 

Marx's ideas gained recognition after his death and eventually were adopted by the Soviet Union after some modification.

True Communism was a bit different from the Communism that the Soviet Union practiced. The theory of Communism sprang from the belief that capitalism would inevitably collapse as a result of the abolishing of the upper classes at the hands of the working classes. By definition, it was a system of society in which the major resources and means of production were owned by the community rather than by individuals.

Das Kapital offered perhaps the most comprehensive study of Communist doctrine. It offered a theoretical explanation of how capitalism developed and how it would be transformed into Communism. According to Das Kapital, there were two classes of citizens in capitalism, the owners who received the majority of the benefits and goods that were produced by the workers, who made up the working class and were generally treated badly and were underpaid. 

At some point in time, the owners, in an endeavor to become wealthier, would overproduce products. This would immediately result in the firing of workers in an effort to maintain efficiency. This, in turn, would create fewer buyers for the increasing amount of products. Eventually the workers would revolt and create a new government.

The Soviet Union adopted this kind of government, mainly because it could be disguised as a people's government, while in reality it was a totalitarian state. Adhering to Marx's belief that the Western nations were on the brink of collapse, the Soviet Union attempted to persuade its citizens with the belief that the West, as a result of the collapse of capitalism, would embrace Communism and become part of the Soviet Union.

The leaders of the Soviet Union convinced themselves that this would happen, and in an attempt to convince people of this fact, the Soviet propaganda machine was utilized to the fullest extent. History textbooks were rewritten, new classes concerning these new beliefs were established in Soviet universities, and people were not allowed to travel outside of the Soviet Union. These attempts to isolate the Soviet Union from the rest of the world and the closing of Soviet borders came to be known as the Iron Curtain. In particular, propaganda was focused on the younger generations.

The Communist Youth League was established and from an early age, children were indoctrinated with the glories of the U.S.S.R. and Communism. The hopes of the Soviet leadership were summed up in a speech made by Vladimir Lenin, the founder of Communism in the Soviet Union, "Give me a generation of young people, and I will transform the world." Communist leader's hopes were short-lived however, for the Western style of government and economy did not collapse, and the West did not embrace Communism.

II.1.2 Capitalism

As far as capitalism was concerned, it roots (it take origin) stemmed from the 1400's, from an economic system called mercantilism. Mercantilism resembled capitalism in that the government subscribed to the principle of selling more than they bought, but that was the only resemblance. During the mid-1700s, a group of French economists known as physiocrats urged the governments to stop interfering with foreign trade.

Their policy, known as laissez faire, demanded an end to tariffs and other trade restrictions. British economist, Adam Smith described in his book, which he published in 1776, how laissez faire should work. His ideas became influential during the early 1800s, and as a result, the British government began to remove its mercantilist controls and to develop the first capitalist economy. Capitalism soon spread to other major trading nations.

However, the issue at hand is the Cold War. As the Cold War progressed, ideological boundaries became more defined. Those who were part of the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), generally had a capitalist economic system in place. This type of economic system was based on an economic model of control of the economy by individual households and private businesses.

Thus, capitalism allowed individuals to act as free agents and make their own business and personal decisions. These free agents were also the ones who determined how resources, goods, and services were used within their business. The end result is that this capitalist economy, also known as a free enterprise economy, permits people to participate in economic activities free from extensive governmental control.

However, although citizens in a capitalist economy have a great deal of economic freedom, the government still plays a role, however minor, in the economy. The role of a government in a capitalist economic system is that of a regulator, to encourage competition, protect the public interest, and ensure equal rights for producers and consumers alike. This type of government intervention allows for healthy competition in the market place.

But, capitalism cannot function without a government system, which supports its principles to allow free agents to make their own decisions. Such a government must grant citizens the basic rights to which they are entitled to enjoy. Democracy embodies the principles of such a government system.

Only through a democracy can a capitalist economic system function properly. In a democracy, people choose who will rule over them and decide how those people will rule. The United States serves as the best example of these two systems, capitalism and democracy, coexisting together.

The people elect a President, who in turn appoints officials whose job is to monitor and lightly regulate the economy. These appointments are then either agreed upon or voted by the Senate who represent the people. Then the appointed officials make various restrictions on large companies and impose a few regulations, but on the whole, allow the market to function without a lot of restraint.

II.1.3 the Difference

In 1905, German economist and sociologist, Max Weber, wrote ‘The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism’ in which he argued against Marx's theory, writing that ethical and religious ideas were strong influences on the development of capitalism. He continued to advance this theory in a series of volumes titled, Religions of the East, which he wrote in 1920-21. In vol. 3, he postulated that the prevailing religious and philosophical ideas in the Eastern world prevented the development of capitalism.

His works were a direct challenge to Marx's theories because they did not rely on the belief that man could attain perfection. Similar to Marx's ideas, the majority of Eastern religious ideas, such as Confucianism and Buddhism, stressed the belief that man was able to attain perfection. Weber's works illustrated that he did not believe this to be possible, and therefore, he believed, that Communism was impractical.

Capitalism is very different from Communism, in that it is a system, which acknowledges the frailty of man and therefore puts all the responsibility to succeed on the individual. If an individual desires to become wealthy then he must work to attain that wealth, he cannot depend on some collective whole to help him. The responsibility for his economic state rests solely with him.

So, practically speaking and morally speaking, it is evident that capitalism is the better system. The extraordinary level of prosperity achieved by the capitalist system over the course of the last two hundred years is a matter of historical record. Communism, on the other hand, cannot claim to have achieved any level of great prosperity.

The living standard in the Soviet Union was lower than some third world countries it controlled. Its economy is only now starting to recover from the numerous collapses that it suffered. On the moral side, capitalism is also the superior system. It's a fair, just system which abides by the principle that if you work, you eat; if you don't work, you don't eat. Communism, on the other hand is definitely a system, which is morally inferior to capitalism. In fact, communism can be looked at as the very product of envy.

The people in the upper class had worked and persevered to reach the stage of material comfort that they were at. The workers saw the standard at which the upper class was living and became envious. Then, suddenly the workers who didn't want to work hard so as to achieve material comfort, saw an easier way to become wealthy. If they took away what the upper classes had, then the upper classes would not be as wealthy and the lower classes would receive a piece of the pie.

This does not make sense, because how could envious workers share equally with each other? Eventually, there would be some who would take more than their fair share and rise above the other workers in terms of prosperity and influence. They would then establish a totalitarian dictatorship. In essence, communism is nothing short of legalized theft. In George Orwell's Animal Farm, a brilliant analogy of the Communist system, all the laws concerning equality are finally taken away, and in their place, only one law is left: "All animals are equal, but some are more equal than others."

II.2 Cold Battles of the Cold War

The term "cold battle" basically implies that there was no great loss of life, no substantial bloodshed; more political and ideological than physical. These cold battles that took place were living proof that a lengthy but indirect competition was in the works; a race to see which ideology would dominate the world. On one side stood the East, represented by the Soviet Union, its Warsaw Pact allies, advocates for the destruction of capitalism and the establishment of communism throughout the world. 

Opposing them were the United States and its NATO allies, attempting to contain Communist expansion efforts any way they could. Using economic manipulation, political maneuvering, espionage, technological advancement, and the threat of mutually assured nuclear destruction, these two factions competed with each other for the upper hand throughout the Cold War.

II.2.1 Economic Manipulation

Economic manipulation played a major role in the Cold War, and was one of the primary factors in the beginning of Soviet unrest. The Marshall Plan, or European Recovery Program, was an American effort to help Europe clean up the economic mess from World War I. Signed by President Truman in April 1947, the Economic Cooperation Administration (ECA) gave over $12 billion to Europe in an effort to “promote European production, to bolster European currency, and to facilitate international trade.” 

Many countries participated including, France, West Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Italy, the Netherlands, Switzerland, Turkey, and the United States. Another reason for the establishment of the ECA was so that it could counter increasing Soviet influence in Europe. Of course, the Soviet Union did not appreciate this restraint, intensely opposing the Marshall Plan from its inception. However, the Marshall Plan was successfully completed in 1952 after effectively aiding the recuperation of Europe’s economy.

The economic aid from the United States with the forming Marshall Plan soon turned into a military protection alliance. NATO, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization was established on April 4, 1949 by Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United States. This alliance was established to ensure “defense collaboration.” Article V of the alliance states,

Article V was passed so that if the Soviet Union attacked any of the European allies, the attack would be treated as an attack on the United States itself. However, the Soviet Union never attacked, so the first time this provision was invoked was for the September 11 attacks on the United States. The Soviets’ response to NATO was to form an alliance of its own, called the Warsaw Treat Organization or the Warsaw Pact. The Soviets forced Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary, Poland, and Romania to sign in 1955. This alliance dissolved with the collapse of the Soviet Union in June 1991.

II.2.2 Decolonization

The decolonization of the Third World began in 1945 and lasted until 1989. By definition, decolonization is the action of changing from colonial to independent status. In other words, in Africa, the Middle East, and Southeast Asia, the formerly great European empires were crumbling. It was hoped that with the formation of new independent nations, democracy would bring a peace and prosperity never before seen to these colonized countries.

In 1946, the United States started the decolonization by granting independence to the Philippines. In the following years, Britain released control of India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma, Sri Lanka and Ghana. In 1957, Ghana was the first African nation to become independent. Further African decolonization occurred with the independence of the Congo and Nigeria. Also, Britain granted freedom to Palestine, a Jewish colony.

With its newfound autonomy, Israel declared itself an independent nation after years of political bondage on May 14, 1948. One day later, an Arab-Israeli war ensued, where the newborn nation had to defend itself on tottering baby steps. After several months of fighting, Israel signed a general truce with the surrounding nations, having proved its ability and will to defend itself. 

Israel was quickly welcomed in diplomatic circles by both the United States and the Soviet Union. Three days after its birth, Israel was accepted into the United Nations. Unfortunately, Israel did not fully rid itself of British influence until 1956. Later named the Suez Crisis, a political disagreement escalated into a fight over who would control the Aswan Dam.

Obviously, decolonization played a major role in the Cold War. The United States and the Soviet Union competed for influence in former colonies by handing out huge grants of financial aid and military aid. Both wanted the new countries to embrace an ideology, either capitalism or Communism. Consequently, Africa, the Middle East and Southeast Asia became the new political battleground for the two competing superpowers.

II.2.3 Espionage

As time went on, espionage began to play a major part in the Cold War, as the competing superpowers tried to checkmate each other’s shadowy moves. In 1947, President Truman created the Central Intelligence Agency, or the CIA. 

The CIA was responsible for gathering and analyzing intelligence about foreign governments, corporations, and individuals. Their rival was the Soviet intelligence agency, officially known as the Komitet Gosudarstvennoi Bezopasnosti, but was better known as the KGB.

Established in 1954, the KGB were the Soviet secret police, responsible for gathering intelligence for the Soviet leadership. These opposing government agencies planted moles, and used every trick in the book to best their opponents. One American mole, Aldrich Ames, is on the record as the best paid double agent in history. For revealing about 100 secret operations and betraying about 30 agents, 10 of which were killed by the Soviets, Ames earned about $4 million as a reward. With their best agents murdered by the Soviets, and their classified operations in shambles, the CIA guessed that a double agent had penetrated their forces. 

However, they suspected another man, Edward Lee Howard. But the CIA had to shelve that idea because Howard did not have access to the betrayed information. Then the CIA concluded that all the deaths of their spies were unconnected, being due to the mistakes of the spies themselves.

An FBI search of his house found a cornucopia of incriminating evidence. The careless Ames had not even tried to mask the huge deposits of blood money received from the Russians. Once confronted with the evidence, Ames offered to confess in return for his wife’s freedom. However, the relentless Justice Department refused to release her, and she served a five-year prison term for her knowledge of her husband’s crimes. Aldrich Ames received a life sentence in prison for betraying his country.

II.2.4 Technology

During the Cold War, there was a technological explosion as the Soviet Union and the United States competed to have the best espionage equipment. During the Cold War, the CIA used improved aviation technology, such as the U-2, a spy plane, as the basis of U.S. intelligence.

The importance of the U-2 was proven when it discovered missile bases on Cuba, preventing possible nuclear attacks on the United States. During the 1960’s the U-2 was slowly replaced by the SR-71 Blackbird. As the world’s fastest air breathing jet, the SR-71 could fly at Mach 3, which was three times the speed of sound, or 33 miles per second. 

In addition, it could also fly 16 miles up in the sky. Another remarkable invention of the Cold War was the intercontinental ballistic missile (ICBM). In 1957, after many years of research on the German V-2 rockets, Soviet scientists produced the SCUD missile, capable of carrying payloads of nuclear warheads.

A few months later, the United States successfully tested the Convair B-65 Atlas ICBM. This unparalleled rocket could deliver a nuclear warhead 6,300 miles away. It would later be used to propel Mercury into space. For protection from the Soviet ICBM’s, the United States designed the MIM-104 Patriot, a surface to air missile system for shooting down SCUD’s.

II.2.5 Nuclear Arms Race

Yet another competitive arena in the Cold War was the Arms Race. The Arms Race was the story of the Soviet quest for nuclear technology and to match and even better the nuclear capability of the United States. To do so, the Soviets used any method in their means, including employing disloyal Americans to steal military secrets.

These Soviet-employed spies infiltrated the Manhattan Project, which was a top-secret effort by the United States to produce the world’s first nuclear weapon. After two billion dollar expenditure and one nuclear test, the United States dropped the first atomic bomb on Hiroshima on Aug. 6, 1945. 

The successful detonation of the bomb killed at least 70,000 Japanese civilians. Upon seeing the havoc that the United States could wreak with its newfound technology, the Soviet Union began trying to obtain some atom bombs of its own. To do so, they employed a German refugee, Klaus Fuchs, who was one of the scientists in the Manhattan Project. In 1945, Fuchs provided a Soviet spy, “Raymond,” with two detailed reports concerning the Manhattan Project, essentially giving American atomic secrets to the Soviet Union.

For his part, Green glass received 15 years in prison. However, Julius and Ethel Rosenberg were sentenced to death and were killed by the electric chair on June 19, 1953. Proof of the advancement of the Arms Race came in 1952, when the United States successfully detonated the hydrogen bomb. They were followed in 1953 by the Soviets. In this way, nuclear technology became a fundamental instrument of political manipulation between the two superpowers of the Cold War.

II.2.6 Space Race

The Arms Race also led to another Cold War competition, the Space Race. On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union launched Sputnik I, the world’s first satellite. Weighing 184 pounds, the Soviet-made basketball-sized object caused quite a stir. This phenomenal achievement was a turning point in technological advancement.

For the first time in history, man had sent something up into space. But, the American public feared that if the Soviets could send satellites into space, they could also propel ballistic missiles carrying atomic weapons from Russia to America. This powerful wakeup call galvanized the United States into action.

However the Soviets were on a roll. That same year, in November, the Soviets launched Sputnik II. In addition to carrying a larger payload, this second Sputnik also carried the first life form into space. Supplied with oxygen, food, and a waste disposal, a dog named Laika was supposed to live for about 10 days until being euthanized by poisoned food. Instead, she survived for about 5-7 hours in orbit around the earth, until she succumbed to “overheating and stress”. 15 The launch of Sputnik sparked the American formation of the National Aeronautics and Space Administration (NASA) in July of 1958. In a desperate attempt to catch up with Soviet satellite technology, the United States launched their first satellite, Explorer I, on Jan. 31, 1958.

But the Space Race was far from over. Both powers competed to see who would be the first to land a man on the moon. On July 20, 1969, United States’ Apollo 11, an American spacecraft, landed two astronauts on the moon. The honor fell to Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin to plant the American flag on the surface and become the first men to walk on the face of the moon.

II.2.7 Bay of Pigs

Political maneuvering could also be seen close to home in the countries that made up Latin America. Latin America had been the willing recipient of many benefits from the United States. Although Latin America was sometimes a headache, the United States had to keep good political relations with Latin America.

The reason for this was because the United States had to keep a finger in the Latin America political pie for strategic purposes. If the Soviet Union, or any other hostile nation, gained control of land and resources so close to the heartland of the United States, that nation could use Latin America as a base for a “military threat.” For that reason, Latin America was of immeasurable “extrinsic” value to the United States. 

Thus United States’ policy regarding Latin America was traumatized when Cuba formed an alliance with the Soviet Union. With a herd of Communist fanatics in their ocean backyard, the United States became understandably nervous.21 On April 17, 1961, a team of 1,500 CIA-trained Cuban exiles attempted to invade Cuba so as to terminate Fidel Castro’s Socialist government.

Chagrined by their failure, the United States pointed the finger of blame in many directions, finally lighting on the CIA. Unwilling to bear the humiliation and derision for the ridiculous loss, the CIA in turn blamed their Cuban trainees’ failure on “internal incompetence.”22 Of course, Fidel Castro and the rest of the Communist world had a good laugh at America’s expense. This unsuccessful invasion directly resulted in another American confrontation with Cuba as well as the Soviet Union two years later.

II.2.8 Cuban Missile Crisis

It came on October 22, 1962 from a widely publicized presidential announcement, which stunned the whole world. This event was probably the most critical showdown of the whole war. This event, which came to be known as the Cuban Missile Crisis, was perhaps the most direct and frightening confrontation of the Cold War, primarily because the threat of nuclear war was at its peak during this time.

A CIA spy plane had discovered “secret missile bases” comprising of 42 missile sites on Cuba, which was only ninety miles away from Florida. With the options of a full scale invasion of Cuba, a massive air strike, or a naval blockade, the Kennedy administration had to quickly decide what course of action it would take. Eight tense days passed while the world sat on the edge of its seat. Catastrophe was averted when President Kennedy instituted a naval blockade to prevent further Soviet building materials and missiles from reaching Cuba.

In addition, President Kennedy demanded that the Soviets remove their missiles from Cuba. However, the Soviets agreed to comply only if the United States agreed not to attack Cuba. This confrontation was probably the closest that the United States and the Soviet Union came to having a nuclear war over the course of the Cold War.

In many ways, the Cold War resembled a chess game. With the world as their chess board, the Soviet Union attempted to manipulate and cause other countries, especially third world countries, to form a Communist government in the place of their existing government. All the while, the United States was trying desperately to contain these Communist expansion efforts.

Although, there was never a direct confrontation between the United States and the Soviet Union, the "hot battles," which took place during the Cold War were the closest that the these two superpowers ever got to directly confronting each other.

II.3 Hot Battles of the Cold War

The reasons for these “hot battles" were vehemently defended, the East and the West both having a reason. The Soviet Union believed and preached that its duty was to save the world from decadent capitalism. As a result, the Soviet leaders strongly encouraged the development of Communism throughout the world, especially in the more vulnerable third world countries.

What the Truman Doctrine empowered the United States and its allies to do, was to take whatever actions they felt would stop the spread of Communism. The results of these stands taken by the two superpowers are painfully evident in the fighting that arose from their actions. These “hot battles" are considered by historians to be among some of the bloodiest and most costly conflicts in history.

II.3.1 Greek Civil War

Greece played a pioneering role in the “hot battles” of the Cold War, in that it was one of the first confrontations to take place during the Cold War, where the Communists used civil war as a means to take over a country. As in the Chinese Civil War, which was taking place around the same time, part of the Civil War was actually a war within a war, the other war being World War II.

Fighting between the Communist forces, otherwise called the People's Army for National Liberation (Ellinikos Laikos Apelevtherotikos Stratos), or ELAS, and resistance forces, known as the National Greek Democratic Union (Ethnikos Demokratikos Syndesmos), or EDES came to a halt in February of 1944, when the two forces signed an agreement in Plaka. The agreement was short-lived; a few weeks later ELAS troops attacked the National Social Liberation Movement (Ethniki Kai Koinoniki Apelevtherosis), or the EKKA, who were cooperating with EDES. Colonel Psarros, who commanded the EKKA forces, was beheaded and his officers massacred.

Infighting continued until toward the end of 1944, when ELAS agreed to collaborate with the Greek government-in-exile in Cairo. On September 2, 1944, the Germans began to evacuate. ELAS promptly sent troops to the Peloponnese islands, which had always eluded their control thanks to German security battalions. All the captured towns and villages were punished, in particular, Meligala, where 1,400 men, women, and children were massacred along with some 50 officers and soldiers from the German security battalions.

ELAS continued to attack and destroy, and they would have captured Athens, except for the defeat handed to them by British forces. Eventually, the ELAS offensive was contained and peace talks were held in Varkiza, where the Communists publicly agreed to disarm. The peace accords that were signed, however, were a bit of a sham because large numbers of weapons and munitions remained carefully hidden.

When asked why ELAS forces were defeated, one of its leaders Ares Velouchiotes said, "We didn't kill enough people. The English were taking a major interest in that crossroads called Greece. If we had killed all their friends, they wouldn't have been able to land. Everyone described me as a killer -- that's the way we were. Revolutions only succeed when the rivers run red with blood, and blood has to be spilled if what you are aiming for is the perfectibility of the human race."

Due to economic difficulties at home, the British had realized that they would not be able to continued aiding the Greek government. In desperation, because they did not want Greece to fall into Communist hands, England turned to the United States and asked if they would take up the support for Greece. President Truman agreed and asked Congress to grant 400 million dollars in aid to the Greek government. Congress assented, and from this situation, the Truman Doctrine was born. U.S. aid made the difference and the last significant Communist refuge was captured in 1949. After almost four years of fighting, the Greek Civil War was over.

Unfortunately, the effect of the Greek Civil War on Greece was devastating. Over the course of the Civil War, Greek Communists kept records on all the children aged three to fourteen in the areas that they controlled. In March of 1948, these children were gathered together in the border regions, and several thousand were taken into Albania, Bulgaria, and Yugoslavia.

The villagers tried to protect their children by hiding them in the woods. 

The Red Cross also aided the villagers in whatever way they could, despite the numerous obstacles in their path. In the summer of 1948, 11,600 of the children who had been living in Yugoslavia were moved to Czechoslovakia, Hungary, Romania, and Poland, despite the protests of the Greek government. On November 17, 1948, the Third UN General assembly passed a resolution roundly condemning the removal of the Greek children. In 1949, the assembly again demanded their return. These and all other subsequent UN resolutions remained unanswered.

It did not appeal to the Greek children to serve the people who were responsible for placing them in the deplorable conditions that they found themselves in. Also, children weren't the only ones who suffered during the war. In the first months of 1947, the Greek Communist campaign had intensified and thousands of peasants were being executed and deported. By March the number of Greek refugees who were fleeing Greece had swollen to more than 400,000 people. 

In all, the casualties were staggering, more than those suffered by the Soviet Union in the Afghan War. 80,000 Greeks were killed, 5,000 were either executed or sentenced to life imprisonment for crimes against the Communists. In addition, and this includes the children as well as adults, 700,000 people, almost 10% of the population became refugees. Although, this was the first Western victory in the Cold War, as would be the case in the rest of the hot battles that would follow, a great number of people needlessly lost their lives.

II.3.2 Chinese Civil War

Around the same time that the Greek Civil War was taking place, the end of two decades of civil war was being played out on the other side of the world. The battleground was China, and the Nationalists were fighting the Communists. However, the roots of this struggle went much deeper. When Communism first entered the scene, the Nationalist government was controlled by the Kuomintang party, which was under the leadership of Sun Yat-sen. In his fight against warlordism, he turned to the western democracies for assistance, but he was ignored.

Finally, he gave up all hope in the West and asked the Soviet Union for support. This was one of the greatest mistakes that the Western world made as far as the Cold War was concerned. Their rejection, forced Sun to turn to the Soviet Union, which allowed Communism to gain a foothold in China. The Communist Party would never have come into being during Sun’s time if he had not been forced to take up negotiations with the Soviet Union.

Today things might have been different in China, in fact the Cold War might have taken a completely different course if China had not been exposed to Communism. As the West was soon to discover, by ignoring Sun Yat-sen, they were facilitating the eventual predomination of Communism in China.

Fortunately, for the leaders of the Soviet Union, they saw the situation as it could be, and considered a great opportunity. Accordingly, they agreed to support Sun. Unfortunately, for Sun, the Soviet Union then decided to adopt a dual support policy, and so they not only supported Sun and the Nationalists, but they also began to support the newly established Communist Party in China.

But the alliance was in name only, and throughout their fighting against the Japanese, the two parties jockeyed for position in the areas of China that were not under Japanese control. Not that the two parties were very concerned by this, but as a result of their inability to unite and fight against a common enemy, numerous war crimes were perpetuated by the unhindered Japanese.

The Nanking massacre, or the Rape of Nanking was a direct result of the infighting that took place between the two Chinese political parties. The Japanese stormed the city of Nanking and turned the place into a bloodbath. Approximately, 30,000 Chinese soldiers and civilians were killed, and over 20,000 women were raped. Although the Japanese remain responsible for this horrendous act, the two parties bear at least part of the blame. Historically, the Nanking massacre is placed with war crimes of World War II. But, it should also be placed with the war crimes that the two warring parties were guilty of during the Chinese Civil War.

Between April and November, major Chinese cities fell under Communist control, and the road to victory for Communism was clear. The United States had supported the Nationalist government throughout the war, and had attempted to bring about negotiations with the warring armies many times, but eventually they just gave up. On October 1, 1949, Mao Zedong proclaimed the establishment of the People’s Republic of China.

Chiang Kai-shek fled to Taiwan with the remnants of the Nationalist government, and on December 8, 1949, he declared Taipei the temporary capital of the Republic of China and continued to assert his government as the sole legitimate authority in China. Taiwan went on to become its own country and was publicly recognized by the United States as it established trade relations with Taiwan and sent it economic aid. 

As far as China was concerned, however, the world knew that Chaing’s assertion was only to save face. In reality, the Communists had finally gained control of China. It was the first victory for Communism during the Cold War.

II.3.3 Korean War

Communism continued to spread in the Far East after the takeover of China. Its next target was Korea. At the end of World War II, Korea was divided along the 38th parallel into Soviet (North Korea) and American (South Korea) occupation zones, according to an agreement between the United States and the Soviet Union.

 In 1948, rival governments were established. The Republic of Korea was declared in the South, and the People’s Democratic Republic of Korea in the North. Due to postwar demobilization on the part of the United States, the South Korean garrison withered in size from 40,000 soldiers to 472 officers and men. In 1950, Secretary of State, Dean Acheson spoke concerning American policy in the Far East. 

Korea was left out, and this prompted Kim el Sung, the leader of North Korea to consider unifying the two countries into one. He did not believe that the United States would intervene, and his belief was strengthened with the shrinking of the American garrison in South Korea. The Soviet Union, led by Joseph Stalin, and China, led by Mao Zedong, also agreed with Kim’s judgment about the United States and his plan to unify the country by force.

On June 25, 1950, North Korean Communist forces crossed the 38th parallel and invaded South Korea. The South Korean forces and the American forces were at a great military disadvantage. The South Koreans were only lightly armed, whereas the North Koreans were heavily equipped with artillery and tanks. The small American garrison of 472 men were of little help and the North Koreans easily overran the South Korean forces and captured Seoul, the capital of South Korea.

The United Nations immediately responded to this unprovoked attack, and condemned it, calling upon its members to put together a coalition force that would come to the relief of the South Korean forces. Meanwhile, the United States was not inactive. President Truman authorized the use of American forces in Korea. General Douglas MacArthur, a renowned military genius and World War II hero, was appointed supreme commander of the United Nations coalition forces. It was the first time that the United Nations had called upon its members to supply armed troops. MacArthur started out quickly against the North Korean forces.

 Steadily, the coalition forces under MacArthur’s command continued to push the North Koreans back. On September 25, MacArthur announced that Seoul had been recaptured. On September 27, United States Marines reached the Capitol building of Seoul, effectively validating MacArthur’s announcement. As coalition forces neared the 38th parallel, China warned the United Nations and the United States that if the coalition crossed the 38th parallel, it would intervene on behalf of the Koreans, so as to protect its borders from American intrusion. MacArthur ignored the warning and continued to drive the North Koreans through back through their own country.

On October 19, 1950, the North Korean capital of Pyongyang was captured; by November 24, the coalition forces had driven the North Korean forces almost to the Yalu River, which marked the border between China and North Korea. As MacArthur prepared for the final offensive, Chinese troops crossed the Yalu River and joined the North Koreans in a successful counterattack against the coalition.

The joint Communist counterattack was in fact so successful that the Communists even managed recaptured Seoul. However, after a month of heavy fighting the Communists were pushed back behind the 38th parallel, where the two countries took up defensive positions. At this time, one of the most controversial events of the war took place.

General MacArthur had continued to hold the position, throughout the conflict, that there was no substitute for total victory in Korea. He wanted to bomb bases in Manchuria, a part of China, and use other all-out measures to achieve this goal. President Truman and his advisors feared that such an action would lead to a third world war. Finally, Truman decided that he could no longer accept MacArthur’s open disagreement to his policy and on April 11, 1951, the mastermind behind the Inchon landings was removed from command. General Matthew B. Ridgeway replaced him as head of the coalition forces.

Peace talks began in 1951, when on June 23 the Soviet delegate to the UN, Jacob Malik, proposed a cease-fire. On June 30, Ridgeway, acting on instructions from Washington, suggested a meeting between Allied and Communist military officers to discuss a truce. A settlement seemed close in November, with both sides agreeing on most of the terms.

Changes were taking place in the leadership positions of the Allies. General Mark W. Clark replaced Ridgeway as commander of the coalition forces in May 1952 and Dwight D. Eisenhower became President in January. Fighting was still raging along the defensive line, and then on March 5, 1953, Soviet premiere Joseph Stalin died. 

After Stalin’s death, Soviet leaders began talking of the need to settle disputes peacefully. On March 28th, the Communists accepted an earlier offer by the UN Command for an exchange of sick and wounded prisoners. On April 26, the Communists also accepted voluntary repatriation. On July 27, 1953, an armistice agreement was signed and the fighting ended.

This change of events, right after Stalin’s death indicates that Stalin was the main stumbling block behind the failed peace talks in 1951-52. It also shows that the Soviet Union held the playing cards for the Communists, not China or North Korea. In any event, the war was finally over. However, a permanent peace plan was never agreed upon.

The Korean War was an extremely costly war, both in casualties and in financial areas. The United States spent over sixty-seven billion dollars on the war, and property damage in South Korea amounted to one billion dollars. More than one million civilians were killed in South Korea. Statistics for civilian deaths and damage was not released by North Korea. Military casualties were enormous.

For the coalition, 580,135 soldiers were either killed, wounded, prisoners, or missing. China and North Korea, topped the scale however with 1,591,000 total casualties, 1,467,000 of those being either dead or wounded, and 124,000 of those being prisoners. All this stemmed from an effort by a Communist government to bring another country under Communist rule. Again, in the Korean War, the two hands of the two superpowers can be seen grasping for superiority in Korea. 

The most noticeable hand was the United States, but the Soviet Union was also involved. The war in Korea was one of the most flagrant confrontations of the Cold War, and the sheer enormity of the soldiers and civilians who lost their lives during that conflict testifies to the brutal effect that the Cold War had on humanity in general.

II.3.4 Vietnam War

And then there was Vietnam. Known in the annals of history as one of the bloodiest wars ever to occur on the face of the earth, Vietnam serves as possibly the most blatant reminder of the Cold War. The struggle for Vietnam between the Communists and the Western nations lasted from 1945 to 1975, precisely 30 years. For over one hundred years Vietnam had been a colony of France.

In spite of this, after much encouragement from Stalin and Mao Zedong, Vietnamese Communists rose up against their colonial masters and began the First Indochina War. History was kind to the Vietnamese and in 1954, France was forced to leave, as a result of a stunning defeat that had been handed to them by Communist forces under the command of General Vo Nguyen Giap. The French pressed for peace and the two sides came together in Geneva, Switzerland to discuss peace terms.

The Geneva talks or accords, were viable proof of the international strains that the Cold War was having on the world. Influenced by the Soviet Union and the People’s Republic of China, the delegates from Vietnam agreed to a temporary partition of their country at the 17th parallel, similar to the type of boundary parameters set in North Korea. Originally, the Communist powers had not wanted this to happen, but the Soviet Union and China did not want to risk another conflict with the West, so soon after the Korean War had ended. Furthermore, Moscow and Peking believed that they could unite Vietnam under Communist rule by political action alone.

However, the United States did not support the Geneva treaty because they believed that it gave too much power to the Vietnamese Communists. Secretary of State John Foster Dulles and President Dwight D. Eisenhower instead supported the creation of a counter-revolutionary alternative south of the seventeenth parallel. 

The result of their efforts to achieve this goal was the SEATO (Southeast Asian Treaty Organization) Treaty. The SEATO Treaty essentially brought about the same thing in Vietnam that had happened in Korea. A U.S.-supported government in South Vietnam was established and called the Republic of Vietnam (GVN), with its capital in Saigon.

The Communist government that was established in North Vietnam was called the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV), with its capital in Hanoi. The South Vietnamese government was led by a staunch anti-Communist, Ngo Dinh Diem. With the help of the CIA, he identified and arrested thousands of people who sought to bring the government down. In 1959, he passed a series of acts that made it legal to hold someone in jail if they were a suspected Communist without bringing formal charges. Many people opposed his rule, which was beginning to take on the look appearance of a dictatorship and not the purported democracy he claimed it to be.

Students, intellectuals, Buddhists, and others joined the Communists in opposition to Diem’s rule. In Washington, the Kennedy administration was not sure how to view Diem’s government. Some viewed him as the best of the bad apples, while and others believed that he had not instituted enough social and economic reforms to remain a viable leader in South Vietnam. As the White House met to decide the future of its Vietnam, a change in strategy was taking place in the highest levels of the Communist Party in the Kremlin.

From 1959-1960, the Communists had tried to reunify Vietnam under Communist rule through political means alone. Their efforts met without any success, and eventually they were persuaded by southern Communists to adopt more violent tactics so as to bring about Diem’s downfall. The result was the creation of a broad-based united front to help mobilize southerners in opposition to the Saigon government.

It was known as the National Liberation Front (NLF), which actually had long and historic roots in Vietnam because it had been used earlier to mobilize anti-French forces. Anyone could join the NLF, so long as they opposed Diem’s harsh rule. Many of the non-Communists did so because they opposed the dictatorship that Diem was implementing. However, they did not realize that ultimately, in supporting the NLF, they would be brought under a Communist regime that did not support their belief in the rights that they felt they were entitled to. Later on, the NLF became known by the Americans as the “Viet Cong,” a derogatory term meaning “Vietnamese Communist.” Meanwhile, things were starting to heat up a bit.

The Viet Cong operated as a guerilla force and were wreaking havoc throughout South Vietnam. As a result of the trouble that the Viet Cong were causing, President Kennedy sent a team to South Vietnam to report on conditions there and assess future American aid requirements. The report that was produced called for a large-scale military buildup in South Vietnam, but Kennedy took a more neutral route, and sought a limiting partnership with Diem.

The United States would increase the number of military advisors and equipment for the South Vietnamese, but they would not intervene with troops. This arrangement did not go very well, and reports soon reached Washington that the NLF was increasing its control in the rural areas. Washington responded with an ambitious attempt to isolate the NLF from the villagers, but Kennedy’s apparent solution to the problem backfired when the villagers grew angry with the government for taking them off their ancestral farmland.

By 1965, the Communist Party realized that the war in Vietnam, which was inevitable, would be a long one, and so they decided to adhere to the strategy of a protracted war; essentially bogging the United States down in a guerilla war that they could not win, which would eventually lead to a political victory. The Party believed that they could carry out this strategy because the United States had no defined war plan, and therefore the country would tire of the war and call for a negotiated settlement.

Finally, the two sides that opposed the peace accords were won over, and on January 23, the final draft was signed, ending hostilities between the United States and the DRV. However, the Paris Peace Agreement, as it later came to be called, did not end the conflict in Vietnam because the South Vietnamese government continued to battle Communist forces. 

The Communists were still receiving a great deal of aid from the Soviet Union, and so they possessed the technological and numerical ability to defeat ARVN forces. Although they desperately tried to save the government from political and military collapse, the ARVN finally had to give in. When Communist forces entered the presidential palace in Saigon, on the morning of April 30, 1975, the Vietnam War officially ended, closing one of the most deplorable chapters in human history and consummating in the complete Communist takeover of Vietnam.

They suffered from a high rate of divorce, drug abuse, suicide, involvement in violent crimes, and unemployment. As morbid as it may seem, the world needed the wakeup call of the Vietnam War to realize the devastating consequences of a confrontation between the East and the West. If Vietnam ever accomplished anything positive, it was that it signaled the beginning of the end of the Cold War. From then on, the whole world was looking for a solution that would end this worldwide confrontation between the Soviet Union and the United States.

II.3.5 Ethiopia war

While Vietnam was going on and after it had drawn to a close, Communism continued to gain ground elsewhere in the world, specifically, in the third world countries of Africa. Of particular interest were three African countries: Ethiopia, which was located in northeastern Africa; Somalia, which was located in eastern Africa and was bordered on the west by Ethiopia; and Angola, which was located in southwestern Africa. Although comparatively small

Ethiopia was perhaps the only African country to have relations with the United States and the Soviet Union, and not be a former protectorate of a European power. In 1930, Haile Selassie I, the 225th in line of succession to the world's oldest monarchy, became emperor of Ethiopia. The following year he granted Ethiopia its first constitution. In 1935, however, Italy invaded Ethiopia upon Benito Mussolini's proclamation that Italy's Victor Emmanuel III, was the new emperor of Ethiopia. Subsequently, Haile Selassie was forced to flee the country in 1936, and take refuge in England.

However, he was restored to the throne by British and Ethiopian forces in 1941. Among his accomplishments were a major land reform (1942 and 1944), emancipation of slaves (1942), and a revised and somewhat broadened constitution (1955) that provided for universal suffrage. The United States stepped in during this period of reform and sent a great deal of economic, humanitarian, military aid. 

This was to be the beginning of a U.S.-Ethiopia relationship that would last for more than 20 years. However, certain progressive elements in the country felt that Selassie's efforts were insufficient. In 1960, his imperial guard attempted to overthrow him, but they failed when the people and the Ethiopian Army rallied around Selassie and quelled the rebellion. In response the emperor grudgingly increased government efforts toward economic and social reform.

Despite the lack of democracy and feudal nature of Selassie's rule, Ethiopia was never in much danger of turning Communist. Selassie himself had preferred Western aid (England, the United States, France, and West Germany) to Eastern aid, although as time progressed he appeared to be succumbing to the lure of rubles which Russia was anxiously using to counter the considerable U.S. influence in Ethiopia. 

Selassie was promised 66,500,000 rubles in loans from the Soviet Union whenever he wanted the money. In addition, he allowed 200 Russian engineers and technicians to build him a gigantic oil refinery in the Red Sea. Other Communist nations also assisted Ethiopia. Bulgaria, upon their offer, was asked to build a deep-water harbor at Massawa, Czechoslovakia multi-million rand factories, Yugoslavia extensions of the port of Assab as well as cement factories in Addis Abba. However, Selassie did resist Communist Chinese pressures to establish diplomatic relations because he feared U.S. reaction.

The Ethiopian situation reflects a fascinating aspect of the Cold War. There was a consistent pattern of Soviet and U.S. attempts to gain favor; always a constant jockeying for position. Wherever the Soviet Union was, the United States was right behind them, and vice versa. Ethiopia reflects this pattern flawlessly. 

It can almost be compared to two little children going through a vast store of toys and each time one comes across something, the other immediately wants it and either tries to obtain it or find something better. It's a lighthearted allegory for a period in time, which devastated the lives of millions of people, but in a sense, that was the strategy employed by both the Soviet Union and the United States. It's regrettable that third world countries like Ethiopia had to serve as toys for the two superpowers.

II.3.6 Somalia war

Communist roots in Somalia go back to when Mussolini expelled Italian Communists to the Italian protectorate of Somalia. There, local Communists were bolstered by the arrival of the newly exiled Italian Communists. At times they worked through their own Party, through the Somali Youth League, and at other times through the Democratic Party.

They also successfully infiltrated many trade unions. The Italian Communist Party was permitted to be active in Somalia until Somalia was granted independence from England in 1960, when it was decolonized. At this time, the Soviet Union began to take a marked interest in Somalia. Soviet leadership realized the potential that existed in Somalia, as a gateway for Communism to East, and later Central and Southern Africa. Accordingly, the Soviet Union offered a great deal of economic and military aid to Somalia's first president, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar, who was elected in 1960.

In 1963, Somalia made an agreement with the Soviet Union, which provided for a huge 22,000,000 rubles worth of military aid. Somalia received a vast store of tanks, M.I.G. fighters, armored personnel carriers, and large quantities of infantry and heavy weapons.

In addition, considerable numbers of promising young Somali officers were sent off to the Russia for training. Communist China had also chipped in when Britain withdrew financial aid. Somalia received from China Rl 5,000,000 interest-free loan and a 2,000,000 ruble budget subsidy. By August of 1966, Somalia had an army numbering more than 25,000 men, including 1,200 Russian military advisors. The following year, however, Somalian President, Aden Abdullah Osman Daar, was defeated in reelection by Abdi Rashid Ali Shirmarke in 1967. The new president did not discontinue Daar's policy and still accepted Communist aid.

Two years later, Shirmarke was deposed and assassinated by a military group led by Major General Muhammad Siad Barre. In 1970, Barre declared Somalia a socialist state, and in the following years most of the modern economy was nationalized. Surprisingly, with the change of government Communist Russia ceased to play such a large role in Somalia. Part of the reason might have been due to the war that Somalia was waging with Ethiopia.

In mid-1977 ethnic Somalis in the adjacent Ogaden region of Ethiopia initiated open warfare aimed at ending Ethiopian control in the area. Somalia aided the rebels by arming them and providing troops. By late 1977, the Somalis had taken over most of the Ogaden region. However, aided by the Soviet Union and Cuba, Ethiopia reasserted control over the region in early 1978. Consequently, the role that the Soviet Union had been playing in Somalia started to shrink.

The United States saw its opportunity and in return for the strategic naval bases at Berbera, which had previously been a Soviet base, they provided Somalia with much needed humanitarian and military aid. 

The reason that Somalia was in such desperate straits was because, in being pushed back, the Somalian army suffered heavy losses. In addition, due to the fighting that was taking place in the Ogaden region, a flood of refugees were crossing the border and fleeing into Somalia. In 1981, the estimated number of refugees was close to 2 million. As a result, the U.S. aid, which came at the right time, was appreciated. This escalated into a developing of relations between the two countries.

The Somalian conflict presents an intriguing aspect of Cold War strategy. Even though, the Soviet Union was aiding Ethiopia in its fight against Somalia, they were aiding Somalia at the same time. It seemed as though, the Soviet Union was trying to ride both sides of the fence.

On the one hand, they were building an army for Somalia, and yet on the other hand, they were giving so much aid to Ethiopia, that it was able to defeat Somalia. Then the United States, who had previously supported Ethiopia, began to aid Somalia. This twisted game which the two superpowers played, and which often resulted in the demise of their third world pawns, became more and more manifest as the Cold War progressed.

II.3.7 Angola war

Angola's rise to independence was a little different than that of Somalia and Ethiopia. Its mother country was Portugal, who really did not want to relinquish its hold on Angola. But the people of Angola, seeing all the nations around them that were gaining their independence wanted their as well.

From the early 20th century to about 1961, Angola had been governed under a system, which promoted economic exploitation, educational neglect, and political repression. In response to this detestable treatment, a nationalist movement rapidly grew during the 1950's. Eventually, the inevitable happened, and a guerilla war against Portugal was initiated in 1961. 

Unfortunately, the nationalists were split into three groups: the National Front for the Liberation of Angola (FNLA), the Marxist Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola, (MPLA), and the National Union for Total Independence of Angola (UNITA). Each group had armed forces in the field, but none of these forces made much headway until the revolution in Portugal in 1974.

The new Lisbon regime agreed to a transfer of power in Angola, and on November 11, 1975, Angola became independent. But then a new problem arose. Two governments claimed to represent the new nation, one which was formed by the MPLA in Luanda, and the other by UNITA and FLNA in Huambo.

The ensuing civil war assumed an international level, as the MPLA was armed by the Soviet Union and aided by Cuban troops. On the other side, the United States and South Africa allied themselves with the FLNA/UNITA coalition, and its leader, Jonas Savimbi. But slowly, the MPLA gained the upper hand, and its government, with MPLA leader Agostinho Neto as president, was gradually recognized throughout the world.

However, the war was not yet over. In 1979, following Neto's death, leadership of the nation was assumed by Jose Eduardo dos Santos. Although FLNA surrendered to the government in 1984, UNITA continued to wage guerilla warfare against the MLPA, supported militarily by South Africa and the United States.

South Africa was mainly battling the Angolan government over control of Namibia. The end result of that conflict was a peace agreement in 1988, signed by Cuba, Angola, and South Africa, granting independence to Namibia, and ending Cuban and South African involvement in the civil war. 

The United States continued to aid UNITA, but it began searching for a way to end the conflict diplomatically. A cease-fire was signed in 1991, but fighting soon broke out after a dispute over the election results that granted the majority of parliamentary seats to the MPLA and the presidency to Santos.

Angola reflects, like the other U.S.S.R/U.S. supported conflicts in Africa, a pattern that was consistently seen throughout the Cold War, where one superpower would take one side, and the other superpower took another side. The effect that this maneuvering had on Angola, for example, was devastating. By 1994, over 3.6 million Angolan's had become refugees, and over 500,000 people had been killed. But that was the price that the world had to pay for allowing the expansion of Communism.

II.3.8 Afghan War

The last major “hot battle” of the Cold War was Afghanistan’s fight for independence. Historians call it the “Soviet Vietnam,” but it is otherwise known as the Afghan War. Soviet-Afghan relations reveal a history of persistent Soviet expansionism. Soviet interests can be traced back to the 19th century, when Czarist Russia had strong diplomatic ties with Kabul and had promised Afghanistan military support against the British.

This relationship continued and after the October Revolution, the Soviet Union began to have significant influence in Afghanistan, which lasted until their withdrawal in 1989. Soviet-Afghan relations had progressed since the establishment of Communism in Russia, and these relations were bolstered in 1955, as a result of the Pashtunistan dispute. The dispute concerned the Afghans tribes trapped by the nominal Durand Line in the British created state of Pakistan. 

The tribes wanted to be given self-determination rights to choose their fate. For that reason, the 1955 The Afghan National Grand Assembly (Loya Jirga) decided to support the trapped tribes stating that they should be able to choose if they wanted an independent Pashtunistan, dependence on Pakistan, or to be incorporated with their motherland Afghanistan.

It was here where the United States made a mistake similar to that, which they had made in China so long ago. Afghanistan's willingness to accept large scale Soviet aid caused concern in the United States, however, the U.S. had limited direct interest because Afghanistan was not a significant trading partner, a transit route, source of oil or other minerals, nor was the U.S. obliged to Afghanistan because of any treaties.

Also, early on from the Franklin Roosevelt administration until the Nixon presidency, Afghanistan's requests for arms had been rejected. In rejecting these requests, the U.S. left the Loya Jirga with only one other option, which was to receive aid from the Soviet Union. As a result, Loya Jirga decided to accept Soviet arms. Furthermore, in December of 1955 when Nikita Khrushchev came to Afghanistan, an Afghan-Soviet Transit Agreement was signed between Kabul and Moscow allowing Afghanistan to move its trade with third-party countries through Soviet territory.

However, just like in China, something went wrong. After staging a coup, and setting up a new government that was supported by the Soviet Union, Nur Muhammad Taraki came into power. He instituted drastic social reforms including women’s rights, land reform, and education. Interestingly enough, the United States also recognized the regime and sent economic aid.

Apparently, they were trying to get their hand back into the Afghan economy, after recognizing the Soviet Union’s marked interest in Afghanistan. Prime Minister Amin, who had led the coup, which had place Taraki in power, then went on a political rampage against political opponents. Some he had shot, others were exiled, but the end result was that the regime began to lose the support of the people. 

Worried, Taraki visited Moscow, and there concocted a plan to oust Amin and restore order. But, Amin caught wind of the plan and had Taraki killed as soon as he returned. This move by Amin threw the whole country into an uproar, prompting the Soviet Union to invade Afghanistan in order to so as to stabilize the situation.

Now, although the decision to invade may have been formulated within a week, the Soviet invasion was the outcome of a systematic process, spanning many decades. Afghan-Soviet relations evolved through different stages: commercial, technological, political and finally direct military integration. 

Strong economic and military ties between Afghanistan and the Soviet Union had developed in such a way that they created a dependency relationship with obvious political implications, and complete dependence on the Soviet Union. Increasing dependence of Afghanistan on its largest trading partner, Soviet Union, in the different stages of integration ultimately laid a logistical infrastructure for invasion, because the Soviet Union did not want to see what they considered to be their newest Communist state, fall into disorder and chaos.

When the Soviet Union invaded Afghanistan in late 1979 and early 1980, they expected it to be an easy cleanup operation, so that they could then stabilize the government. They sent in groups of Spetsnaz soldiers, specially trained Russian commandos, to kill Amin and capture Kabul.

However, they were taken by surprise because the Afghans had decided that they were not willing to give up their country, or what remained of it, to the Soviets. Utilizing guerilla warfare tactics, they harassed the Soviet forces to no end. During this conflict, the United States did not hesitate to aid the Afghans. They were supplied with great numbers of weapons and ammunition and later on during the 1980’s as the war progressed; the CIA gave the Afghans shoulder-launched rocket launchers.

The Soviet Union faced the same problem that the United States had faced in Vietnam. They were used to fighting a conventional war, but the Afghans did not have access to conventional weapons, and so they were forced to adopt bizarre tactics that left the Soviets reeling. Little by little, the Soviets conformed to the Afghan way of fighting, but the damage had already been done, because the Afghans had sensed that victory was right around the corner. In addition, the sanitation situation for the Russian invaders was extremely poor, and more soldiers died from disease then from battle. Pneumonia, malaria, plague, and hepatitis were rampant throughout the Soviet ranks. It seemed as though the Soviets were defeating themselves.

Morale on the war front was even lower. Men were drafted from factories and farms and as a result, their morale was never that good because they were being forced out of a comfortable environment into a deplorable environment. As if that was not enough, when they reached Afghanistan and realized that they were unwelcome occupiers in a hostile land, their morale plummeted even further.

Many became addicted to narcotics, and financed their expensive habit by selling supplies, weapons, and ammunition. Others turned to violent crime, robbing merchants and passersby. When Afghans were stopped at a checkpoint and found carrying a large amount of money, they were “sent to Kabul,” which actually meant that they and their luggage were isolated behind a wall, out of sight, and then robbed and killed.

 In the field, villages were razed and the occupants murdered in retaliation for ambushes or suspected aid to the guerrillas. Some of these seem to have been officially sanctioned while others appear to have resulted from a breakdown in discipline. Overall, the situation was rapidly deteriorating for the Soviets. Finally, in 1989 after about ten years of pointless conflict and bloodshed, the Soviet Union withdrew its troops from Afghanistan.

Casualties were not high in one sense, there were only 15,000 dead or missing, which was relatively small compared to the losses suffered by the United States in Vietnam. However, there was another aspect to the casualty issue. Of the 642,000 Soviets who served during the ten-year war, 469,685 were wounded or incapacitated by serious illness. Some 415,932 troops fell victim to disease, of which 115,308 suffered from infectious hepatitis and 31,080 from typhoid fever. Similar to Vietnam, the psychological impact was also enormous.

The citizens of the Soviet Union did not understand why their sons were being conscripted for battle in a strange land and failed to see how their sacrifices contributed to the security of the fatherland. Those with connections sought to avoid the draft. Unlike their fathers who fought the Nazi invaders, the returning soldiers were not welcomed as heroes or treated with respect. They were shunned and often scorned by their fellow citizens.

 A gap appeared between the armed forces and the people and many veterans found they could not fit back into the lifestyle of the complacent and self-centered citizenry. Like Vietnam and the United States, the effects of the Afghan War reverberate throughout Russia today.

The Afghan War was a rare confrontation in history, because in that it helped trigger the collapse of the greatest empire of modern times. Like Vietnam it signaled the end of something, the end of the Cold War. What President Reagan had said at the beginning of the final decade of the Cold War, was becoming reality for the Russian people.

The Soviet Union was indeed, an “an evil empire.” How could the Soviet Union call itself the "emancipator of mankind," by forcibly indoctrinating people and their countries with the Communist philosophy? By hiding the truth from their own people and denying them their basic human rights? What the West had recognized and attempted to combat, the people of the Soviet Union were now beginning to grasp. That was the end result of the Afghan War. Just like Vietnam woke up the world, so did Afghanistan wake up the Russian people. With the institution of Gorbachev's policies, the Russian people finally came face-to-face with the futility of the government system that they lived under.

II.4 Breakup of the Soviet Union

II.4.1 the Berlin Wall

From a military or economic viewpoint, the Berlin Wall held little significance. However, from an ideological point of view, the Berlin Wall was perhaps the preeminent symbol of Communism in Europe. As a result, the tearing-down of the Berlin Wall heavily implied that the sun was setting on Communism.

The Berlin Wall was first established not long after World War II had drawn to a close. Immediately after Germany's fall, the U.S., France, Britain, and the Soviet Union split Germany into four sections, each controlling one of them. 

The United States, France, and Britain joined their sections together to form a democratic government in what came to be known as West Germany. This section was called the Federal Republic of Germany or the FRG. Not to be outdone, the Soviet Union created a Communist-governed East Germany. Named the German Democratic Republic, it was called the GDR. Because the majority of the people in East Germany did not support Communism, East Germany’s inhabitants began to flee from Communist rule into the emancipated West Germany.

Finally after about 200,000 people had fled, Erich Honecker, a German Communist leader, designed a barrier which would prevent further "illegal" emigration. First built during the night of August 13, 1961, the Berlin Wall was intended to stop the exodus into West Germany.

The first wall, called the first generation, was simply composed of concrete and large square blocks. A second Wall was built in 1962. In 1965, the first and second generations were removed to make way for the improved third Wall. This third generation was made of concrete slabs with steel girders. 

The fourth and final generation, made of concrete segments, was built in 1975. When finished, the Berlin Wall was 96 mi long with an average height of 11.8 feet. Although seemingly impregnable, this formidable barrier did not daunt the resolute East Germans. 192 people were killed trying to escape while trying to flee from East Berlin. An additional 200 people were injured by shooting. Although innocent people died trying to escape from the hated regime, Communist propaganda called the Berlin Wall an “Anti-fascist protection wall.” The end of the Berlin Wall began in 1985 with the appearance of a new Communist leader, Mikhail Gorbachev. In addition to reforming the economy, Mr. Gorbachev changed the foreign policy toward the GDR.

At the same time, anti-government demonstrations by the long-suffering East Germans and pressure from his political party compelled Erick Honecker to resign.

As the members of Honecker’s cabinet resigned, the once tight travel regulations for crossing the Berlin Wall loosened. Under the new Prime Minister, the inflexible border security slackened little by little, allowing a flood of emigration into West Germany. As the dam slowly weakened, the economic, social and political pressure upon the Soviet Union to end its Communist expansion efforts and totalitarian policies were epitomized by U.S. 

President Ronald Reagan’s statement in a speech, "Mr. Gorbachev, tear down this wall!" But, Reagan was not just referring to Berlin, or Germany. He was referring to Communism in general. He was asking Gorbachev to tear down the Iron Curtain that separated millions of people from freedom, justice, and equality. He was asking Gorbachev to end the needless bloodshed. He was asking Mr. Gorbachev to end the Cold War.

II.4.2 The Breakup

The breakup of the Soviet Union started to take place when Mikhail S. Gorbachev came into power as the head of the Communist party in Russia. During this time, Russia was in deep economic trouble and had many political problems, many of which issued from the war that the Soviet Union was waging in Afghanistan. 

In an effort to address these problems Gorbachev introduced a two-tiered policy of reform. On one level he initiated a policy of glasnost (freedom of speech) and on the other, he started a program of economic reform which was called perestroika.

Gorbachev was very different from his predecessors, in that he allowed other non-communist parties to be formed and to compete in elections. In addition, he signed the Intermediate-range Nuclear Force (INF) Treaty with Ronald Reagan in 1987. Gorbachev’s predictions that Russia would come out of this economic trouble did not come to pass as inflation rose as well as a shortage of goods.

The people used their freedom of speech to heavily criticize Gorbachev and through their newfound freedom they also released their emotions and feelings regarding the political situation. Gradually, the non-communist parties started to gain more power. These different parties initiated breakup within the Soviet Union. 

Massive demonstrations broke out in Armenia and many of the republics on the perimeter of the Soviet Union. Gorbachev’s government could not allow a whole secession of republics, as that would cause a complete disintegration of the Soviet Union. This refusal of secession angered the secession groups that had been formed and caused small rebellions to spring up throughout the Soviet Union. The rebellions snowballed until finally, in a desperate attempt to save the Soviet Union, a group of hard-core Communists organized a coup d’etat.

In August of 1991, they kidnapped Gorbachev and declared to the people that he was to ill to rule anymore. In response to this drastic move, massive demonstrations commenced in Moscow, Leningrad, and in many other major cities. The coup tried to use the military to quench the rebellions but the military, which were made up of soldiers, refused to fire upon their own countrymen. Without the help of the military to control the people, the coup leaders were unable to control the Soviet Union. The coup dissolved and Gorbachev was restored to power.

Although, he was reinstated, he never regained full power, as the people wanted a full democracy, which had become evident in their massive demonstrations. On December 25, 1991, Gorbachev resigned. Eventually, thirteen of the fifteen states declared independency from the Soviet Union. They were, however able to agree on a loose confederation. All ties were finally broken when the republics broke away to the Commonwealth of the independent states. In January of 1992, the Soviet Union officially ended its existence.

II.4.3 Communism fall

From a Biblical viewpoint, the breakup of Communism was inevitable. It just could not work, because it did not acknowledge man's frailty. The fact that man cannot achieve perfection is an established fact. Communism attempted to go against that rationale and as a result, although it may have lasted for around 70 years, it eventually fell. 

Whereas, the United States governmental and economic system, which acknowledges man's weakness, is still standing after about 200 and some years. Compared to ancient civilizations, that's nothing, but those ancient civilizations also acknowledged the fact that man was weak and frail and could not achieve perfection. 

Communism promotes an atheistic principle, that man can sacrifice himself for the common good of all. Historically speaking, only one man has ever done that As far as He is concerned, the Bible points out in John 3: 16 that He was not like other men. So, in reality, Communism is not based on historical evidence that human events are determined by economic causation. Communism is based on the idea of man accomplishing something without God; without acknowledging the existence of God. Capitalism, acknowledges the existence of God. Capitalism does not depend on man alone. Capitalism depends on man with something else.

Max Weber called it the Protestant Work Ethic. But it's not just the Protestant Work Ethic. That "something else" is God. That's why the Soviet Union collapsed. That's why Communism fell apart.

II.4.4 Impact of the Breakup

The end of Communism in Russia signaled the end of the Cold War. In 1992, the United Sates and Russia indirectly declared peace by mutually consenting to the fact that they did not consider each other potential enemies. However, the breakup of the Soviet Union had an enormous impact throughout the whole world, mainly due to the issue of proxy warring. Throughout the Cold War, the Soviet Union had supported many countries in proxy wars. These were wars in which the U.S. and the U.S.S.R. sponsored opposing sides in an effort to indirectly combat each other. Following the collapse of the Soviet Union, the aid that it had been giving these countries was withdrawn.

The United States was not trying to build a world empire, and when it saw that the Soviet Union had withdrawn aid, it also withdrew its aid. But there was a problem. Although, the Cold War had ended, the question of which side would win in the warring countries had not been decided. And so the two factions in the countries continued to fight. Due to the prolonging of the civil wars, the lasting effects of the breakup were devastating to the countries involved.

One tragic example is Angola. After the Soviet Union had stopped aiding the MPLA, it continued to fight with UNITA, even though the U.S. had also stopped aiding UNITA. Today, it has no government institutions which the "civilized" world recognizes. Although it has many natural resources it is extremely poor. Daily flights by the U.N. World Food Program are required to avert mass starvation. There is not a great deal of enforcement in the way of law and order in the rural areas, which are often ruled by warlords who use military force as a way of dealing out justice.

Because of the extensive aid that the two sides had been given by the U.S. and the Soviet Union, there was still a lot of military resources left over. These resources had a negative effect because the potential for more bloodshed was also increased. This further hindered any possibility of restoring some semblance of law and order in Angola. In the urban areas law and order was restored and enforced to a certain extent but law and order did not exist in the rural areas. In addition, with no foreign sponsorship for arms, combatants increasingly turn to criminal means to generate money - drugs, diamond smuggling, and kidnapping.

These civil wars continue today in countries like Angola, such as Somalia, Ethiopia, and Eritrea. The living conditions in the countries worsen with the continuing civil wars. In Angola, the future is bleak, as the civil war has no end in sight. The country is dirt-poor even though it has a vast number of natural resources. As a result of the ongoing civil war, facilities cannot be developed to access these resources, or even to just establish trade relations. In the end, the impact of the Cold War and the breakup of the Soviet Union has caused instability and systematic social deterioration in many countries with prolonged civil war.

In addition, there are still countries in the world today who employ a Communist-style government. The majority of these, however, have dwindled into dictatorships, with everything under the control of the government. North Korea, Vietnam, and Cuba are all good examples of such cases. 

But, the breakup also had a positive effect. For instance, the Iron Curtain came down. Russian people were allowed to travel quite freely. Eastern European countries recovered quickly and started to slowly achieve an unprecedented level of prosperity. But most importantly, the shadow of Communism has essentially disappeared, so that, throughout the world, Communist governments have ceased to be anything more than a small minority in world governments today.

II.4.5 Lessons of the Cold War

The Cold War taught the world many things. Just like we can never have another World War, neither can we have another Cold War. To once again promote a system which denies the existence of God, is not permissible. In a sense, the Cold War was just as bad as World War II.

The loss of life may not have been as great, but still it was horrific. There's a saying that one death is a tragedy, but a million deaths become a statistic. That cannot be allowed happen. The world paid too much of a price to go back to another conflict like the Cold War. The devastating effect that the Cold War had on the lives of people all over the world is incalculable. What made the Cold War even more terrible, however, was the fact that a modern empire, not just a group, but a modern empire, was attempting to govern itself on the principle that man was inherently perfect and had the ability to attain perfection. In essence, that modern empire was denying the very existence of God.

Those who did try to acknowledge the existence of God were persecuted. Human liberties were trampled upon. The government controlled every aspect of society with an iron fist. This does not mean that there should not be government, but it does mean that to acknowledge the existence of God is essential for the survival of a governmental system. History provides an excellent example. 

Which government acknowledged the existence of God? The U.S. or the Soviet Union? Which government is still surviving today? The U.S. or the Soviet Union? It's no longer a matter of debate; it's a fact. The U.S. is a prosperous nation, while the former Soviet Union is still struggling. From a humanitarian perspective, the Cold War taught the world that another conflict of its kind would be just as devastating as a third world war. From a Biblical perspective, the Cold War taught the world something that went a little deeper. It showed the world that without God, man is nothing. But, with God, man is everything.

II. New system of Cold War System (discussed with students)